SOCI 325: Sociology of Science

Agenda

Theme 4:
Science aligns
with power

  1. Administrative
  2. Functionalism and science
  3. Norms of scientific practice
  4. Reading discussion

Administrative

Notes

Groupwork

  • Groups for graded worksheets have been set
  • If you encounter any issues, please let me know
  • Peer assessment instructions by email today or tomorrow

Student discussion questions

  • You will receive an email within the next few days with your discussion question assignments
  • You will need to do the readings for your assigned days well before the due date
  • The earliest assignment will be due Sept 29

Function­alism & science

Structural functionalism

A line drawing of a hippo divided into arbitrary sections. The sections are labeled 'Labor','Science','Education','Media','Religion','Industry',and 'Government'. The hippo itself is labeled 'Society' in bold letters.

Society through its function

  • Structural functionalism is a theoretical approach in sociology that views society as a system of interconnected and interdependent institutions.
  • Often described with a biological metaphor: different organs and systems in a body all function to keep the whole organism working.

The function of science

Just the butt of the hippo from the previous slide, emphasizing 'Science'

Certified knowledge

  • “The institutional goal of science is the extension of certified knowledge.”
    (Merton 1942, p. 270)
  • Science adds to society’s ever-growing body of knowledge.

Maintaining function

  • Continued production of certified knowledge is enforced through an ethos of science.
  • Set of social norms. Compliers are rewarded, and violators are punished.
  • Normative structure is what makes science work, not scientists or methods.

Norms of scientific practice

Norms of scientific practice

Institutions shape behavior

  • Norms are institutionalized regularities in behavior
  • Expectations around what individuals do, how they justify their actions, and how others react

Scientific norms

  • Science can be studied as an institution defined by its norms
  • E.g. scientific methods; ethics; professional conduct; modes of communication; sanctions; etc.

Expectations vs. behavior

  • While institutional norms strongly shape the expectations people have around behavior, actual behavior may regularly break norms
  • E.g. there is a strong norm against gendered discrimination in Western science, but assessments of contribution continue to exagerate mens’ influence
    (van den Brink and Benschop, 2012)
  • Non-normative behavior is still interpreted in the context of dominant norms
Video title screen showing a man in false color wearing gloves and cammo vest. Text reads 'How to maake your own Plan B' and 'Four Thieves Vinegar Collective'

Enforcing norms a la Merton

CUDOS (Merton 1942)

  • Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organized Skepticism

Rewards & sanctions

  • “Carrot and stick”
  • Attempt to explain the force and durability of scientific norms.

Functional norms

  • Merton was not (necessarily) arguing that scientists should conform to these CUDOS norms
  • He was arguing that these norms are what ensures the production of certified scientific knowledge
A book cover. Title 'On being a scientist: a guide to responsible conduct in research'. Vague images oof sciency stuff like a person looking through a microscope, dramatically colored 3d rendering of a double helix, planets in outer space, etc.

National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2009. On Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research: Third Edition.

Next class

Normal science, paradigms, and scientific revolutions

Required reading

  • Kuhn (1970)
    Anomaly and the Emergence of Scientific
    Discoveries and Crisis
    and
    The Emergence of Scientific Theories

Discussion

Find your group

  • Log on to class fileshare:
    https://cloud.petermcmahan.com
  • Find your group folder in “Shared” folder
    (e.g. Shared => Team Puffball)
  • Find your groupmates in the class

Small-group discussions:

  • Choose one facilitator who will keep the discussion focused and make sure everyone is able to participate.
  • Choose one secretary who will be in charge of notes and summarizing the group’s responses for submission.
  • Find the worksheet online in the folder with your group’s mushroom name
  • Type your responses directly in the document — due at end of class

Notes:

  • You do not need to reach consensus on the questions. Your write-up should mention the different points your group thought were relevant. One or two paragraphs worth of text per question should be sufficient.
    Please avoid bullet-point format.
  • You can discuss the questions in any order you like, and you do not need to respond to all of them. Read them all over before you begin!

Image credit

Video title screen showing a man in false color wearing gloves and cammo vest. Text reads 'How to maake your own Plan B' and 'Four Thieves Vinegar Collective'

Image from Four Thieves Vinegar Collective

Communism: collective ownership of scentific output (findings, communication). (Contrast with CIA's view of free inquiry being compatible with _only_ capitalism) Universalism: Scientific ideas/resources should be impersonal. Race/gender/etc should not matter because ideas should stand an their own. (Important: he was not saying that scientists _didn't_ take these ideas into account, just that they though one ought not. Relate to Benjamin and science masking prejudice.) Disinterestedness: Motivation should not be personal gain. Rewards are granted for sticking to these ethos, not for producing specific things. Merton thought this protected science from fraud. (see: publish or perish, stem cell scandal) Organized skeptecism: Everything is up for debate; critical look at everything.